Hypothesis Testing: This involves formulating a hypothesis about a population parameter and using sample data to assess the validity of the hypothesis. Common methods include t-tests, chi-square tests, and ANOVA.
Confidence Intervals: Provide a range of values within which a population parameter is likely to fall.
Regression Analysis: Regression analysis explores the relationship between one or more independent variables and a dependent variable.
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA): ANOVA is a statistical method used to analyze the differences among group means in a sample. It is often employed to compare means across multiple groups. Probability Distributions: Probability distributions, such as the normal distribution, play a crucial role in inferential statistics. -**Sampling Distributions:The Central Limit Theorem is a key concept related to sampling distributions.
2.随机抽样 Select random Samples all possible samples are equally likely Larger complex samples. key features:
分层:Population divided into different strata, and part of sample is allocated to each stratum; -, ensures sample representation from each stratum, and reduces variance of survey estimates (stratification)
聚类:Clusters of population units (e-g., counties) are randomly sampled first (with known probability) within strata, to save costs of data collection (collect data from cases close to each other geographically)(如果你想调查各国人,你可以直接去移民国家比如美国,这样省事儿)
samples are not based on a known probability. (Challenging or impractical). (1)预判在前;(2)看运气调查。
Convenience Sampling: In convenience sampling, individuals or elements are selected based on their == easy accessibility or availability == . (lead to a biased sample)
Purposive Sampling: Selecting individuals or elements based on == specific characteristics or qualities == that are relevant to the research objectives.
Snowball Sampling: Snowball sampling starts with an initial set of participants, and then those participants refer or introduce the researcher to additional potential participants. This method is often used when the population is hard to reach. 别人介绍
Quota(配额) Sampling: Quota sampling involves dividing the population into subgroups (strata) based on certain characteristics and then setting quotas for each subgroup. Participants are then conveniently selected to meet these quotas.
Judgmental Sampling: the researcher uses their judgment or expertise to select individuals who are believed to be representative of the population. This method relies heavily on the researcher’s ==subjective == judgment.